RAIN WATER HARVESTING.

Rain water harvesting.

Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams. The techniques usually found in Asia and Africa arise from practices employed by ancient civilizations within these regions and still serve as a major source of drinking water supply in rural areas. Commonly used systems are constructed of three principal components; namely, the catchment area, the collection device, and the conveyance system. A) Catchment Areas Rooftop catchments: In the most basic form of this technology, rainwater is collected in simple vessels at the edge of the roof. Variations on this basic approach include collection of rainwater in gutters which drain to the collection vessel through down-pipes constructed for this purpose, and/or the diversion of rainwater from the gutters to containers for settling particulates before being conveyed to the storage container for the domestic use. As the rooftop is the main catchment area, the amount and quality of rainwater collected depends on the area and type of roofing material. Reasonably pure rainwater can be collected from roofs constructed with galvanized corrugated iron, aluminium or asbestos cement sheets, tiles and slates, although thatched roofs tied with bamboo gutters and laid in proper slopes can produce almost the same amount of runoff less expensively (Gould, 1992). However, the bamboo roofs are least suitable because of possible health hazards. Similarly, roofs with metallic paint or other coatings are not recommended as they may impart tastes or colour to the collected water. Roof catchments should also be cleaned regularly to remove dust, leaves and bird droppings so as to maintain the quality of the product water . Land surface catchments: Rainwater harvesting using ground or land surface catchment areas is less complex way of collecting rainwater. It involves improving runoff capacity of the land surface through various techniques including collection of runoff with drain pipes and storage of collected water. Compared to rooftop catchment techniques, ground catchment techniques provide more opportunity for collecting water from a larger surface area. By retaining the flows (including flood flows) of small creeks and streams in small storage reservoirs (on surface or underground) created by low cost (e.g., earthen) dams, this technology can meet water demands during dry periods. There is a possibility of high rates of water loss due to infiltration into the ground, and, because of the often marginal quality of the water collected, this technique is mainly suitable for storing water for agricultural purposes. Various techniques available for increasing the runoff within ground catchment areas involve: i) clearing or altering vegetation cover, ii) increasing the land slope with artificial ground cover, and iii) reducing soil permeability by the soil compaction and application of chemicals . Clearing or altering vegetation cover: Clearing vegetation from the ground can increase surface runoff but also can induce more soil erosion. Use of dense vegetation cover such as grass is usually suggested as it helps to both maintain an high rate of runoff and minimize soil erosion. Increasing slope: Steeper slopes can allow rapid runoff of rainfall to the collector. However, the rate of runoff has to be controlled to minimise soil erosion from the catchment field. Use of plastic sheets, asphalt or tiles along with slope can further increase efficiency by reducing both evaporative losses and soil erosion. The use of flat sheets of galvanized iron with timber frames to prevent corrosion was recommended and constructed in the State of Victoria, Australia, about 65 years ago (Kenyon, 1929; cited in UNEP, 1982). Soil compaction by physical means: This involves smoothing and compacting of soil surface using equipment such as graders and rollers. To increase the surface runoff and minimize soil erosion rates, conservation bench terraces are constructed along a slope perpendicular to runoff flow. The bench terraces are separated by the sloping collectors and provision is made for distributing the runoff evenly across the field strips as sheet flow. Excess flows are routed to a lower collector and stored (UNEP, 1982). Soil compaction by chemical treatments: In addition to clearing, shaping and compacting a catchment area, chemical applications with such soil treatments as sodium can significantly reduce the soil permeability. Use of aqueous solutions of a silicone-water repellent is another technique for enhancing soil compaction technologies. Though soil permeability can be reduced through chemical treatments, soil compaction can induce greater rates of soil erosion and may be expensive. Use of sodium-based chemicals may increase the salt content in the collected water, which may not be suitable both for drinking and irrigation purposes. B) Collection Devices Storage tanks: Storage tanks for collecting rainwater harvested using guttering may be either above or below the ground. Precautions required in the use of storage tanks include provision of an adequate enclosure to minimise contamination from human, animal or other environmental contaminants, and a tight cover to prevent algal growth and the breeding of mosquitos. Open containers are not recommended for collecting water for drinking purposes. Various types of rainwater storage facilities can be found in practice. Among them are cylindrical ferrocement tanks and mortar jars. The ferrocement tank consists of a lightly reinforced concrete base on which is erected a circular vertical cylinder with a 10 mm steel base. This cylinder is further wrapped in two layers of light wire mesh to form the frame of the tank. Mortar jars are large jar shaped vessels constructed from wire reinforced mortar. The storage capacity needed should be calculated to take into consideration the length of any dry spells, the amount of rainfall, and the per capita water consumption rate. In most of the Asian countries, the winter months are dry, sometimes for weeks on end, and the annual average rainfall can occur within just a few days. In such circumstances, the storage capacity should be large enough to cover the demands of two to three weeks. For example, a three person household should have a minimum capacity of 3 (Persons) x 90 (l) x 20 (days) = 5 400 l.                          ARUNKUMAR NEVER GIVE UP                     Rainfall water containers: As an alternative to storage tanks, battery tanks (i.e., interconnected tanks) made of pottery, ferrocement, or polyethylene may be suitable. The polyethylene tanks are compact but have a large storage capacity (ca. 1 000 to 2 000 l), are easy to clean and have many openings which can be fitted with fittings for connecting pipes. In Asia, jars made of earthen materials or ferrocement tanks are commonly used. During the 1980s, the use of rainwater catchment technologies, especially roof catchment systems, expanded rapidly in a number of regions, including Thailand where more than ten million 2 m3 ferrocement rainwater jars were built and many tens of thousands of larger ferrocement tanks were constructed between 1991 and 1993. Early problems with the jar design were quickly addressed by including a metal cover using readily available, standard brass fixtures. The immense success of the jar programme springs from the fact that the technology met a real need, was affordable, and invited community participation. The programme also captured the imagination and support of not only the citizens, but also of government at both local and national levels as well as community based organizations, small-scale enterprises and donor agencies. The introduction and rapid promotion of Bamboo reinforced tanks, however, was less successful because the bamboo was attacked by termites, bacteria and fungus. More than 50 000 tanks were built between 1986 and 1993 (mainly in Thailand and Indonesia) before a number started to fail, and, by the late 1980s, the bamboo reinforced tank design, which had promised to provide an excellent low-cost alternative to ferrocement tanks, had to be abandoned.                               ARUNKUMAR NEVER GIVE UP               C) Conveyance Systems Conveyance systems are required to transfer the rainwater collected on the rooftops to the storage tanks. This is usually accomplished by making connections to one or more down-pipes connected to the rooftop gutters. When selecting a conveyance system, consideration should be given to the fact that, when it first starts to rain, dirt and debris from the rooftop and gutters will be washed into the down-pipe. Thus, the relatively clean water will only be available some time later in the storm. There are several possible choices to selectively collect clean water for the storage tanks. The most common is the down-pipe flap. With this flap it is possible to direct the first flush of water flow through the down-pipe, while later rainfall is diverted into a storage tank. When it starts to rain, the flap is left in the closed position, directing water to the down-pipe, and, later, opened when relatively clean water can be collected. A great disadvantage of using this type of conveyance control system is the necessity to observe the runoff quality and manually operate the flap. An alternative approach would be to automate the opening of the flap as described below. A funnel-shaped insert is integrated into the down-pipe system. Because the upper edge of the funnel is not in direct contact with the sides of the down-pipe, and a small gap exists between the down-pipe walls and the funnel, water is free to flow both around the funnel and through the funnel. When it first starts to rain, the volume of water passing down the pipe is small, and the *dirty* water runs down the walls of the pipe, around the funnel and is discharged to the ground as is normally the case with rainwater guttering. However, as the rainfall continues, the volume of water increases and *clean* water fills the down-pipe. At this higher volume, the funnel collects the clean water and redirects it to a storage tank. The pipes used for the collection of rainwater, wherever possible, should be made of plastic, PVC or other inert substance, as the pH of rainwater can be low (acidic) and could cause corrosion, and mobilization of metals, in metal pipes. In order to safely fill a rainwater storage tank, it is necessary to make sure that excess water can overflow, and that blockages in the pipes or dirt in the water do not cause damage or contamination of the water supply. The design of the funnel system, with the drain-pipe being larger than the rainwater tank feed-pipe, helps to ensure that the water supply is protected by allowing excess water to bypass the storage tank. A modification of this design is shown in Figure 5, which illustrates a simple overflow/bypass system. In this system, it also is possible to fill the tank from a municipal drinking water source, so that even during a prolonged drought the tank can be kept full. Care should be taken, however, to ensure that rainwater does not enter the drinking water distribution system.                       ARUNKUMAR NEVER GIVE UP

Extent of Use The history of rainwater harvesting in Asia can be traced back to about the 9th or 10th Century and the small-scale collection of rainwater from roofs and simple brush dam constructions in the rural areas of South and South-east Asia. Rainwater collection from the eaves of roofs or via simple gutters into traditional jars and pots has been traced back almost 2 000 years in Thailand (Prempridi and Chatuthasry, 1982). Rainwater harvesting has long been used in the Loess Plateau regions of China. More recently, however, about 40 000 well storage tanks, in a variety of different forms, were constructed between 1970 and 1974 using a technology which stores rainwater and stormwater runoff in ponds of various sizes. A thin layer of red clay is generally laid on the bottom of the ponds to minimize seepage losses. Trees, planted at the edges of the ponds, help to minimize evaporative losses from the ponds (UNEP, 1982).

Level of Involvement and Skill Various levels of governmental and community involvement in the development of rainwater harvesting technologies in different parts of Asia were noted. In Thailand and the Philippines, both governmental and household-based initiatives played key roles in expanding the use of this technology, especially in water scarce areas such as northeast Thailand.

Cultural Acceptability Rainwater harvesting is an accepted freshwater augmentation technology in Asia. While the bacteriological quality of rainwater collected from ground catchments is poor, that from properly maintained rooftop catchment systems, equipped with storage tanks having good covers and taps, is generally suitable for drinking, and frequently meets WHO drinking water standards. Notwithstanding, such water generally is of higher quality than most traditional, and many of improved, water sources found in the developing world. Contrary to popular beliefs, rather than becoming stale with extended storage, rainwater quality often improves as bacteria and pathogens gradually die off (Wirojanagud et al., 1989). Rooftop catchment, rainwater storage tanks can provide good quality water, clean enough for drinking, as long as the rooftop is clean, impervious, and made from non-toxic materials (lead paints and asbestos roofing materials should be avoided), and located away from over-hanging trees since birds and animals in the trees may defecate on the roof.

Cultural Acceptability Maintenance is generally limited to the annual cleaning of the tank and regular inspection of the gutters and down-pipes. Maintenance typically consists of the removal of dirt, leaves and other accumulated materials. Such cleaning should take place annually before the start of the major rainfall season. However, cracks in the storage tanks can create major problems and should be repaired immediately. In the case of ground and rock catchments, additional care is required to avoid damage and contamination by people and animals, and proper fencing is required.

Advantages Rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and operate. Local people can be easily trained to implement such technologies, and construction materials are also readily available. Rainwater harvesting is convenient in the sense that it provides water at the point of consumption, and family members have full control of their own systems, which greatly reduces operation and maintenance problems. Running costs, also, are almost negligible. Water collected from roof catchments usually is of acceptable quality for domestic purposes. As it is collected using existing structures not specially constructed for the purpose, rainwater harvesting has few negative environmental impacts compared to other water supply project technologies. Although regional or other local factors can modify the local climatic conditions, rainwater can be a continuous source of water supply for both the rural and poor. Depending upon household capacity and needs, both the water collection and storage capacity may be increased as needed within the available catchment area.

Disadvantages Disadvantages of rainwater harvesting technologies are mainly due to the limited supply and uncertainty of rainfall. Adoption of this technology requires a *bottom up* approach rather than the more usual *top down* approach employed in other water resources development projects. This may make rainwater harvesting less attractive to some governmental agencies tasked with providing water supplies in developing countries, but the mobilization of local government and NGO resources can serve the same basic role in the development of rainwater-based schemes as water resources development agencies in the larger, more traditional public water supply schemes.

Suitability The augmentation of municipal water supplies with harvested rainwater is suited to both urban and rural areas. The construction of cement jars or provision of gutters does not require very highly skilled manpower.

Development Costs The capital cost of rainwater harvesting systems is highly dependent on the type of catchment, conveyance and storage tank materials used. However, the cost of harvested rainwater in Asia, which varies from $0.17 to $0.37 per cubic metre of water storage, is relatively low compared to many countries in Africa (Lee and Vissher, 1990). Compared to deep and shallow tubewells, rainwater collection systems are more cost effective, especially if the initial investment does not include the cost of roofing materials. The initial per unit cost of rainwater storage tanks (jars) in Northeast Thailand is estimated to be about $1/l, and each tank can last for more than ten years. The reported operation and maintenance costs are negligible.

Effectivness of Technology The feasibility of rainwater harvesting in a particular locality is highly dependent upon the amount and intensity of rainfall. Other variables, such as catchment area and type of catchment surface, usually can be adjusted according to household needs. As rainfall is usually unevenly distributed throughout the year, rainwater collection methods can serve as only supplementary sources of household water. The viability of rainwater harvesting systems is also a function of: the quantity and quality of water available from other sources; household size and per capita water requirements; and budget available. The decision maker has to balance the total cost of the project against the available budget, including the economic benefit of conserving water supplied from other sources. Likewise, the cost of physical and environmental degradation associated with the development of available alternative sources should also be calculated and added to the economic analysis. Assuming that rainwater harvesting has been determined to be feasible, two kinds of techniques--statistical and graphical methods--have been developed to aid in determining the size of the storage tanks. These methods are applicable for rooftop catchment systems only, and detail guidelines for design of these storage tanks can be found in Gould (1991) and Pacey and Cullis (1986, 1989). Accounts of serious illness linked to rainwater supplies are few, suggesting that rainwater harvesting technologies are effective sources of water supply for many household purposes. It would appear that the potential for slight contamination of roof runoff from occasional bird droppings does not represent a major health risk; nevertheless, placing taps at least 10 cm above the base of the rainwater storage tanks allows any debris entering the tank to settle on the bottom, where it will not affect the quality of the stored water, provided it remains undisturbed. Ideally, storage tanks should cleaned annually, and sieves should fitted to the gutters and down-pipes to further minimize particulate contamination. A coarse sieve should be fitted in the gutter where the down-pipe is located. Such sieves are available made of plastic coated steel-wire or plastic, and may be wedged on top and/or inside gutter and near the down-pipe. It is also possible to fit a fine sieve within the down-pipe itself, but this must be removable for cleaning. A fine filter should also be fitted over the outlet of the down-pipe as the coarser sieves situated higher in the system may pass small particulates such as leaf fragments, etc. A simple and very inexpensive method is to use a small, fabric sack, which may be secured over the feed-pipe where it enters the storage tank. If rainwater is used to supply household appliances such as the washing machine, even the tiniest particles of dirt may cause damage to the machine and the washing. To minimize the occurrence of such damage, it is advisable to install a fine filter of a type which is used in drinking water systems in the supply line upstream of the appliances. For use in wash basins or bath tubs, it is advisable to sterilise the water using a chlorine dosage pump.

Further Development of Technology Rainwater harvesting appears to be one of the most promising alternatives for supplying freshwater in the face of increasing water scarcity and escalating demand. The pressures on rural water supplies, greater environmental impacts associated with new projects, and increased opposition from NGOs to the development of new surface water sources, as well as deteriorating water quality in surface reservoirs already constructed, constrain the ability of communities to meet the demand for freshwater from traditional sources, and present an opportunity for augmentation of water supplies using this technology.

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IF I BECOME THE FIRST PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA .

IF I BECOME THE FIRST PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA :

Everyone has a dream! You must be having it too! But some have a real zeal to pursue their dreams with great persistence, perseverance and strength to become and do what they want in life. Many of us love our country and countrymen and want to do something real good for our motherland India to keep up her pride and honor. The development with the pace of time is the key word in the success of people and country. In the democratic India, each one of us has something to share on government policies, rules and regulations, general pubic life, possibilities and opportunities of development and growth, the future of country, political issues, critical issues etc. With our experience and practical with democracy and current affairs of our country, we realize ‘need of change’ and have good suggestions and ideas that can benefit country and countrymen. They say “to think is the greatest asset and potential of mankind”, so your ideas and thinking are the greatest assets of India that can help her to attain success in every field. You might have felt sometime “would I be the Prime Minister of India, I would have done this and that…”, that shows that you really want to change the present state of affairs for better in the common interest. Each one has different intellectual, knowledge, experience and capacity that differs one’s perceptions and thinking from others. So if you have a suggestion and experience to share, that you want to tell to the Indian government and other enthusiastic and energetic countrymen for making a change for better, THEN WRITE IT HERE. Put yourself in the position of Prime Minister of a country having the largest democratic government, greatest potential and multiple diversities in present era, and if you were at the top of hierarchy in political and administrative system of your country, then what changes and orders you do that will be really needed.

if I were the Prime Minister of India, what would I do to make India a super power by 2020? “where the mind is without fear and the head is held high...Into that heaven of freedom, my father, let my country awake". Tagore and so many other leaders of our country envisioned an India far better than what we have made it today. Easy though it may be for us to blame it on the 'corrupt political leaders' or the ‘useless government’, the truth lies in the fact that they are also one of us. we have elected them. if we point a finger at them, we would be pointing 3 fingers back at ourselves. we say we cannot change the system. What we don’t realize is that we don’t need to change the system, we need to change ourselves. we need to ask ourselves what we have done for the country and get positive answers. India is our country too not just the politicians and we must contribute towards building a better India, one envisioned by Tagore, by Gandhi, by us.

A 14 year old, when asked by our president APi Abdul Kalam what she would like to be when she grows up, replied, 9 would like to be a citizen of developed India". To most of us, this is developed India as we believe that no more development can be brought about what with the population explosion, the corruption and the poverty. Instead of spreading awareness regarding population control, reporting the acts of corruption or spreading literacy to help poverty ridden people secure a minimum standard of living, we choowe to just sit back and criticize about the laws of the land. we have learned to resign and do nothing and have become fully convinced that India is in a hopeless situation and can't be helped. But that is only because we have chosen to adopt the easy way rather than the right way. It's high time that we woke up and realize the consequence for our decisions will ultimately harm or benefit us.

If I were to become the Prime Minister of India.

 I will live like the humblest citizen. I will not like to call myself the Prime Minister at all. In a democracy there are no menials and ministers no peons, no premiers. In fact, I feel that I could do my little bit for the country as a Prime Minister.

I will keep myself just like the greatest servant of the country. I am by nature soft hearted selfless, devoted and ready to make any sacrifice for the common good of the nation. Another man's wound pains me as severely as my own. My sense of self-respect is injured when I find poverty sticking to my countrymen like some ugly, disreputable disease. As the Prime Minister of my country it will be my aim and ambition to bring prosperity to the hungry millions.

There is a large number of minors and majors young boys and girls, men and women uneducated in our country and they cannot make distinction between good and bad, right and wrong. First of all will restrict child labor and secondly, I make education free and compulsory so that children can go to school. Now-a-days, education is not of a uniform character. I shall see that there are only good schools and all boys and girls whether rich or poor, get the same education. There should be no corruption in education.

I shall keep my country strong by keeping a strong army. The strength of the Indian army will keep others away from our borders. I would not like to start a war but would not allow anybody to walk over our defenses.

I shall strive to keep good relations with all countries. I shall try to have friends. I shall have such relations with other countries as will enhance our prestige abroad. This is possible only when we are internally strong.

Internal strength depends on the economic development of a country. I shall try to make India as much self-sufficient as possible. My first care will be self-sufficiency in food. I would work all my might to raise the status of my country. Thus, I would make India of my dreams.

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DEFINITION FOR ANDROID .

An Android phone is a smartphone running on Google's open-source Android operating system. Many different manufacturers make Android phones, including HTC, Motorola, and Samsung. Dozens and dozens of different Android phones are now available, and all of the major cellular carriers in the U.S. offer Android phones.

Originally derived from the Linux desktop operating system, Android is a customizable platform that can look and feel very different on very different handsets. That means that an HTC Android phone will look and operate differently than an Android phone made by Samsung. It also means that an HTC Android phone from T-Mobile won't be exactly like an HTC Android phone that runs on Sprint's network.

Still, all Android phones do share some common features. All of them have touchscreens. Some also have hardware keyboards, but not all of them do. All come with a desktop that is made up of a certain number of screens (some Android phones have 3, others have 5, while still others have 7) that you can customize to your liking. You can populate screens with shortcuts to apps or widgets that display news headlines, search boxes, or more.

All Android phones also offer access to the Android Market, where you can download Android apps. As of this writing, more than 150,000 apps are available in the Android Market.

COUNTRIES , CAPITALS AND THEIR CURRENCIES .

Country Name	Capital	Currency
Afghanistan	Kabul	Afghani
Albania	Tirane	Lek
Algeria	Algiers	Dinar
Andorra	Andorra la Vella	Euro
Angola	Luanda	New Kwanza
Antigua and Barbuda	Saint John's	East Caribbean dollar
Argentina	Buenos Aires	Peso
Armenia	Yerevan	Dram
Australia	Canberra	Australian dollar
Austria	Vienna	Euro (formerly schilling)
Azerbaijan	Baku	Manat
The Bahamas	Nassau	Bahamian dollar
Bahrain	Manama	Bahrain dinar
Bangladesh	Dhaka	Taka
Barbados	Bridgetown	Barbados dollar
Belarus	Minsk	Belorussian ruble
Belgium	Brussels	Euro (formerly Belgian franc)
Belize	Belmopan	Belize dollar
Benin	Porto-Novo	CFA Franc
Bhutan	Thimphu	Ngultrum
Bolivia	La Paz (administrative); Sucre (judicial)	Boliviano
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo	Marka
Botswana	Gaborone	Pula
Brazil	Brasilia	Real
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan	Brunei dollar
Bulgaria	Sofia	Lev
Burkina Faso	Ouagadougou	CFA Franc
Burundi	Bujumbura	Burundi franc
Cambodia	Phnom Penh	Riel
Cameroon	Yaounde	CFA Franc
Canada	Ottawa	Canadian dollar
Cape Verde	Praia	Cape Verdean escudo
Central African Republic	Bangui	CFA Franc
Chad	N'Djamena	CFA Franc
Chile	Santiago	Chilean Peso
China	Beijing	Yuan/Renminbi
Colombia	Bogota	Colombian Peso
Comoros	Moroni	Franc
Congo, Republic of the	Brazzaville	CFA Franc
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Kinshasa	Congolese franc
Costa Rica	San Jose	Colón
Cote d'Ivoire	Yamoussoukro (official); Abidjan (de facto)	CFA Franc
Croatia	Zagreb	Kuna
Cuba	Havana	Cuban Peso
Cyprus	Nicosia	Cyprus pound
Czech Republic	Prague	Koruna
Denmark	Copenhagen	Krone
Djibouti	Djibouti	Djibouti franc
Dominica	Roseau	East Caribbean dollar
Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo	Dominican Peso
East Timor (Timor-Leste)	Dili	U.S. dollar
Ecuador	Quito	U.S. dollar
Egypt	Cairo	Egyptian pound
El Salvador	San Salvador	Colón; U.S. dollar
Equatorial Guinea	Malabo	CFA Franc
Eritrea	Asmara	Nakfa
Estonia	Tallinn	Kroon
Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	Birr
Fiji	Suva	Fiji dollar
Finland	Helsinki	Euro (formerly markka)
France	Paris	Euro (formerly French franc)
Gabon	Libreville	CFA Franc
The Gambia	Banjul	Dalasi
Georgia	Tbilisi	Lari
Germany	Berlin	Euro (formerly Deutsche mark)
Ghana	Accra	Cedi
Greece	Athens	Euro (formerly drachma)
Grenada	Saint George's	East Caribbean dollar
Guatemala	Guatemala City	Quetzal
Guinea	Conakry	Guinean franc
Guinea-Bissau	Bissau	CFA Franc
Guyana	Georgetown	Guyanese dollar
Haiti	Port-au-Prince	Gourde
Honduras	Tegucigalpa	Lempira
Hungary	Budapest	Forint
Iceland	Reykjavik	Icelandic króna
India	New Delhi	Rupee
Indonesia	Jakarta	Rupiah
Iran	Tehran	Rial
Iraq	Baghdad	Iraqi Dinar
Ireland	Dublin	Euro (formerly Irish pound [punt])
Israel	Jerusalem*	Shekel
Italy	Rome	Euro (formerly lira)
Jamaica	Kingston	Jamaican dollar
Japan	Tokyo	Yen
Jordan	Amman	Jordanian dinar
Kazakhstan	Astana	Tenge
Kenya	Nairobi	Kenya shilling
Kiribati	Tarawa Atoll	Australian dollar
Korea, North	Pyongyang	Won
Korea, South	Seoul	Won
Kosovo	Pristina	Euro (German Mark prior to 2002)
Kuwait	Kuwait City	Kuwaiti dinar
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek	Som
Laos	Vientiane	New Kip
Latvia	Riga	Lats
Lebanon	Beirut	Lebanese pound
Lesotho	Maseru	Maluti
Liberia	Monrovia	Liberian dollar
Libya	Tripoli	Libyan dinar
Liechtenstein	Vaduz	Swiss franc
Lithuania	Vilnius	Litas
Luxembourg	Luxembourg	Euro (formerly Luxembourg franc)
Macedonia	Skopje	Denar
Madagascar	Antananarivo	Malagasy franc
Malawi	Lilongwe	Kwacha
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Ringgit
Maldives	Male	Rufiya
Mali	Bamako	CFA Franc
Malta	Valletta	Maltese lira
Marshall Islands	Majuro	U.S. Dollar
Mauritania	Nouakchott	Ouguiya
Mauritius	Port Louis	Mauritian rupee
Mexico	Mexico City	Mexican peso
Micronesia, Federated States of	Palikir	U.S. Dollar
Moldova	Chisinau	Leu
Monaco	Monaco	Euro
Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar	Tugrik
Montenegro	Podgorica	Euro
Morocco	Rabat	Dirham
Mozambique	Maputo	Metical
Myanmar (Burma)	Rangoon (Yangon); Naypyidaw or Nay Pyi Taw (administrative)	Kyat
Namibia	Windhoek	Namibian dollar
Nauru	no official capital; government offices in Yaren District	Australian dollar
Nepal	Kathmandu	Nepalese rupee
Netherlands	Amsterdam; The Hague (seat of government)	Euro (formerly guilder)
New Zealand	Wellington	New Zealand dollar
Nicaragua	Managua	Gold cordoba
Niger	Niamey	CFA Franc
Nigeria	Abuja	Naira
Norway	Oslo	Norwegian krone
Oman	Muscat	Omani rial
Pakistan	Islamabad	Pakistani rupee
Palau	Melekeok	U.S. dollar
Panama	Panama City	balboa; U.S. dollar
Papua New Guinea	Port Moresby	Kina
Paraguay	Asuncion	Guaraní
Peru	Lima	Nuevo sol (1991)
Philippines	Manila	Peso
Poland	Warsaw	Zloty
Portugal	Lisbon	Euro (formerly escudo)
Qatar	Doha	Qatari riyal
Romania	Bucharest	Leu
Russia	Moscow	Ruble
Rwanda	Kigali	Rwanda franc
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Basseterre	East Caribbean dollar
Saint Lucia	Castries	East Caribbean dollar
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Kingstown	East Caribbean dollar
Samoa	Apia	Tala
San Marino	San Marino	Euro
Sao Tome and Principe	Sao Tome	Dobra
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh	Riyal
Senegal	Dakar	CFA Franc
Serbia	Belgrade	Yugoslav new dinar. In Kosovo both the euro and the Yugoslav dinar are legal
Seychelles	Victoria	Seychelles rupee
Sierra Leone	Freetown	Leone
Singapore	Singapore	Singapore dollar
Slovakia	Bratislava	Koruna
Slovenia	Ljubljana	Slovenian tolar; euro (as of 1/1/07)
Solomon Islands	Honiara	Solomon Islands dollar
Somalia	Mogadishu	Somali shilling
South Africa	Pretoria (administrative); Cape Town (legislative); Bloemfontein (judiciary)	Rand
South Sudan	Juba	Sudanese Pound
Spain	Madrid	Euro (formerly peseta)
Sri Lanka	Colombo; Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (legislative)	Sri Lanka rupee
Sudan	Khartoum	Dinar
Suriname	Paramaribo	Surinamese dollar
Swaziland	Mbabane	Lilangeni
Sweden	Stockholm	Krona
Switzerland	Bern	Swiss franc
Syria	Damascus	Syrian pound
Taiwan	Taipei	Taiwan dollar
Tajikistan	Dushanbe	somoni
Tanzania	Dar es Salaam; Dodoma (legislative)	Tanzanian shilling
Thailand	Bangkok	baht
Togo	Lome	CFA Franc
Tonga	Nuku'alofa	Pa'anga
Trinidad and Tobago	Port-of-Spain	Trinidad and Tobago dollar
Tunisia	Tunis	Tunisian dinar
Turkey	Ankara	Turkish lira (YTL)
Turkmenistan	Ashgabat	Manat
Tuvalu	Vaiaku village, Funafuti province	Australian dollar
Uganda	Kampala	Ugandan new shilling
Ukraine	Kyiv	Hryvna
United Arab Emirates	Abu Dhabi	U.A.E. dirham
United Kingdom	London	Pound sterling
United States of America	Washington D.C.	dollar
Uruguay	Montevideo	Uruguay peso
Uzbekistan	Tashkent	Uzbekistani sum
Vanuatu	Port-Vila	Vatu
Vatican City (Holy See)	Vatican City	Euro
Venezuela	Caracas	Bolivar
Vietnam	Hanoi	Dong
Yemen	Sanaa	Rial
Zambia	Lusaka	Kwacha
Zimbabwe	Harare	Zimbabwean dollar

சோழர் கால ஐம்பெருங் காப்பியங்கள் & ஐஞ்சிறு காப்பியங்கள்.

சோழர் காலம் :-

ஐம்பெருங் காப்பியங்கள் :-

*சிந்தாமணி.

*சிலப்பதிகாரம்.

*மணிமேகலை.

*வளையாபதி.

*குண்டலகேசி.

ஐஞ்சிறு காப்பியங்கள் :-

*சூளாமணி.

*நீலகேசி.

*உதயன குமார காவியம்.

*யசோதர காவியம்.

*நாக குமார காவியம்.

JOURNALIST ESSAY.

JOURNALIST:-

A Journalist is a writer for newspapers and magazines or a person whose occupation is journalism. This term also applies to one who broadcasts on radio or television columnist or an editorialist. A Journalist also refers to someone who keeps a diary or journal diarist.

WHO IS JOURNALIST?

Journalism is a form of writing that tells people about things that really happened, but that they might not have known about already.

People who write journalism are called "journalists." They might work at newspapers, magazines, websites or for TV or radio stations.

The most important characteristic shared by good journalists is curiosity. Good journalists love to read and want to find out as much as they can about the world around them.

Journalism comes in several different forms:

I. News

A. Breaking news: Telling about an event as it happens.

B. Feature stories: A detailed look at something interesting that's not breaking news.

C. Enterprise or Investigative stories: Stories that uncover information that few people knew.

II. Opinion

A. Editorials: Unsigned articles that express a publication's opinion.

B. Columns: Signed articles that express the writer's reporting and his conclusions.

C. Reviews: Such as concert, restaurant or movie reviews.

Online, journalism can come in the forms listed above, as well as:

·  Blogs: Online diaries kept by individuals or small groups.

·  Discussion boards: Online question and answer pages where anyone can participate.

·  Wikis: Articles that any reader can add to or change.

The best journalism is easy to read, and just sounds like a nice, smart person telling you something interesting.

Reporting:-

                      A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports information to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a journalist's job is sometimes called "reporting," in contrast to the production part of the job such as writing articles. Reporters may split their time between working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interview people. Reporters may be assigned a specific beat or area of coverage.

Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, and visual journalists, such as photojournalists (journalists who use the medium of photography).

Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are often considered important, some types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism, intentionally adopt a non-objective viewpoint.

Journalistic freedom:-

A program director sets the task for TV journalists

Journalists may expose themselves to danger, particularly when reporting in areas of armed conflict or in states that do not respect the freedom of the press. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom and advocate for journalistic freedom. As of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that, 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 bymurder (71 percent), crossfire or combat (17 percent), or on dangerous assignment (11 percent). The "ten deadliest countries" for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq (230 deaths), Philippines (109), Russia (77), Colombia (76), Mexico (69), Algeria (61), Pakistan (59), India (49), Somalia (45) and Brazil(31).^[3]

The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1, 2010, 145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. Current numbers are even higher. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey (ninety-five),^[4] China (34 imprisoned), Iran(34), Eritrea (17), Burma (13), Uzbekistan (six), Vietnam (five), Cuba (four), Ethiopia (four), and Sudan (three).^[5]

The Newseum in Washington, D.C. is home to the Journalists Memorial, which lists the names of over 2,100 journalists from around the world who were killed in the line of duty.

How do you get the facts for your news story? By reporting!

There are three main ways to gather information for a news story or opinion piece:

·  Interviews: Talking with people who know something about the story you are reporting.

·  Observation: Watching and listening where news is taking place.

·  Documents: Reading stories, reports, public records and other printed material.

The people or documents you use when reporting a story are called your "sources." In your story, you always tell your readers what sources you've used. So you must remember to get the exact spelling of all your sources' names. You want everything in your story to be accurate, including the names of the sources you quote.

Often, a person's name is not enough information to identify them in a news story. Lots of people have the same name, after all. So you will also want to write down your sources' ages, their hometowns, their jobs and any other information about them that is relevant to the story.

Whenever you are interviewing someone, observing something happening or reading about something, you will want to write down the answers to the "Five Ws" about that source:

·  Who are they?

·  What were they doing?

·  Where were they doing it?

·  When they do it?

·  Why did they do it?

Many good reporters got their start by keeping a diary. Buy a notebook, and start jotting down anything interesting you hear, see or read each day. You might be surprised to discover how many good stories you encounter each week!